Everything we think, know, or believe is a model—a simplified representation of reality inscribed in our nervous system. These mental models are huge, interlocking sets of operating procedures refined by experience. What's in our heads falls far short of fully representing the world, but models are the only tools we have for thinking. The map is never the territory.

The best answer to a problem often comes from a different field than where the problem originated. Real understanding requires synthesizing insights across domains because reality doesn't respect disciplinary boundaries. Building a latticework of mental models from diverse fields provides the raw material for creative problem-solving.

Building understanding from fundamental truths rather than by analogy or convention. First principles thinking breaks down complex problems to their basic elements, then constructs solutions from there. This approach is harder than reasoning by analogy but produces genuine innovation rather than incremental improvement.

All models contain built-in assumptions and limitations that shape thinking in subtle ways. We apply paradigms—mental frameworks—to data before we're conscious of doing so. If the foundational assumptions are wrong, entire fields built on them rest on shaky ground. Recognizing this inherent bias is crucial for avoiding systematic errors.

Models improve through systematic exposure to criticism, not through confirmation. Popper's critical rationalism suggests we should seek to falsify beliefs rather than verify them. The scientific method—make bold conjectures, then ruthlessly try to disprove them—applies beyond science to all domains where we seek truth.